View source for History of the electric vehicle

[[Image:GM EV.jpg|thumb|275px|right|The [[General Motors EV1]], one of the cars introduced due to the [[California Air Resources Board]] mandate, had a range of {{Convert|160|mi|km|abbr=on}} with [[NiMH]] batteries in 1999.]]

The '''history of the electric vehicle''' began in the mid-19th century. An electrical vehicle held the vehicular [[land speed record]] until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed and short range of [[Battery electric vehicle|electric vehicles]], compared to later [[internal combustion]] vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use. At the beginning of the 21st Century, interest in electrical and other alternative fuel vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with [[Fossil fuel|hydrocarbon fueled]] vehicles, including damage to the [[air pollution|environment]] caused by their [[motor vehicle emissions|emissions]], and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure.

==1830s to 1900s: Early history==
[[Image:Jedlik's electric-car.PNG|thumb|left|Electric vehicle model by [[Ányos Jedlik]], the inventor of an early type of [[electric motor]] (1828, Hungary).]]

Electricity is one of the oldest automobile propulsion methods still in use today; it predates the invention of [[diesel engine|Diesel's]] and [[Gasoline engine|Benz's]] [[Four-stroke engine|Otto cycle]]-engines by several decades.

The invention of the electric vehicle is attributed to various people. In 1828, [[Ányos Jedlik]], a Hungarian who invented an early type of [[electric motor]], created a tiny model car powered by his new motor. In 1834, [[Vermont]] [[blacksmith]] [[Thomas Davenport (inventor)|Thomas Davenport]], the inventor of the first American [[Direct current|DC]] electrical motor, installed his motor in a small model car, which he operated on a short circular electrified track.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/jul6.htm
|title=Today in Technology History: July 6
|publisher=[http://www.tecsoc.org The Center for the Study of Technology and Science]
|accessdate=2009-07-14}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]], the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small-scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable [[primary cell]]s.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.rug.nl/museum/geschiedenis/hoogleraren/stratingh
|title=Sibrandus Stratingh (1785-1841), Professor of Chemistry and Technology
|publisher=[[University of Groningen]]
 - Dutch available
|accessdate=2009-04-24
}}</ref> In 1838, Scotsman [[Robert Davidson (inventor)|Robert Davidson]] built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of {{Convert|4|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://features.csmonitor.com/environment/2009/02/10/as-electric-cars-gain-currency-oregon-charges-ahead/
|magazine=[[Christian Science Monitor]]
|title=As electric cars gain currency, Oregon charges ahead
|last=Armstrong Moore|first=Elizabeth
|date=10 February 2009
|accessdate=2009-04-24}}</ref> Between 1832 and 1839, [[Robert Anderson (inventor)|Robert Anderson]] of Scotland invented a crude electrical carriage.<ref name=aboutcom/> A patent for the use of rails as conductors of electric current was granted in England in 1840, and similar patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in the United States in 1847.<ref>[http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html History of Railway Electric Traction]</ref> Rechargeable batteries that provided a viable means for storing electricity on board a vehicle did not come into being until the 1840s.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1990-1126-500, Kraftdroschke.jpg|thumb|right|German electric car, 1904, with the chauffeur on top]]
The invention of improved battery technology, including efforts by [[Gaston Plante]] in France in 1865,<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.travelsmart.gov.au/teachers/teachers6.html
|title=Development of the Motor Car and Bicycle
|section=5.2
|hournal=TravelSmart Teacher Resource Kit
|publisher=[[Government of Australia]]
|date=2003
|accessdate=2009-04-24}}</ref> as well as his fellow countryman Camille Faure in 1881,<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/electric-car-timeline.html
|title=Timeline: Life & Death of the Electric Car
|date=9 June 2006
|accessdate=2009-04-24
|series=[[NOW on PBS]]
|publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]
}}</ref> paved the way for electric cars to flourish in Europe. An electric-powered two-wheel cycle was put on display at the 1867 World Exposition in Paris by the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] inventor Franz Kravogl.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://blog.lib.umn.edu/ernst102/architecture/pg15%20copy.pdf
|title=Solution: Alternative energy for passenger vehicles
|chapter=The Electric/Hybrid Car
|author=ernst102
|page=20 (1 on PDF)
|accessdate=2009-04-24
|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] <!-- er but it's a blog -->
}}</ref> France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.<ref name=aboutcom>{{cite
|last=Bellis|first=M.
|date=2006
|title=The History of Electric Vehicles
|chapter=The Early Years
|publisher=[[About.com]]
|url=http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm
|accessdate=6 July 2006
}}</ref> The lack of natural fossil resources in Switzerland resulted in the tiny European nation's rapid electrification of its railway network to reduce its dependence on foreign energy. In November 1881, French inventor [[Gustave Trouvé]] demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile at the [[International Exposition of Electricity, Paris|International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris]].<ref>{{cite
 | last=Wakefield|first=Ernest H.
 | title=History of the Electric Automobile
 | publisher=[[Society of Automotive Engineers]]
 | date=1994
 | isbn=1-56091-299-5
 | pages=2–3
 }}</ref> English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the [[London Underground]], overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel [[coalite]], claimed to have perfected a working electric car as early as 1884.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5212278/Worlds-first-electric-car-built-by-Victorian-inventor-in-1884.html
|accessdate=2009-05-30
|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]
|title=World's first electric car built by Victorian inventor in 1884 |date=24 April 2009 |accessdate = 14 July 2009
}}</ref>

Electric trains were also used to transport [[coal]] out of [[mining|mines]], as their motors did not use up precious oxygen. Before the pre-eminence of [[internal combustion engines]], electric automobiles also held many speed and distance records.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.macscouter.com/CubScouts/PowWow07/SCCC_2007/CubScoutThemes/Jan_2008.pdf
|date=January 2008
|title=Cub Scout Car Show
|accessdate=2009-04-12
}}
</ref> Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the {{Convert|100|km/h|abbr=on}} speed barrier, by [[Camille Jenatzy]] on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle [[Jamais Contente]], which reached a top speed of {{Convert|105.88|km/h|abbr=on}}.  Also notable was Ferdinand Porsche's design and construction of an all-wheel drive electric car, powered by a motor in each hub,<ref>{{cite
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-wheel_drive#History
|date=February 2009
|title=History of Four-wheel Drive
|accessdate=2010-02-07
}}</ref> which also set several records in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart.

===The rise of the electric vehicle in America===
[[Image:Detroit Eletric ad 1912.jpg|thumb|left|1912 [[Detroit Electric]] advertisement]]

Though Thomas Davenport was among the first to install an electric motor into a vehicle, an electric car in the conventional sense was not developed until 1890 or 1891, by William Morrison of [[Des Moines]], [[Iowa]]; the vehicle was a six-passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of {{Convert|14|mph|km/h|abbr=off}}. It was not until 1895 that Americans began to devote attention to electric vehicles, after A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S., by that point, Europeans had been making use of electric tricycles, bicycles, and cars for almost 15 years. Many innovations followed, and interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s. In 1897, electric vehicles found their first commercial application as a fleet of electrical New York City taxis, built by the Electric Carriage and Wagon Company of Philadelphia, was established. Electric cars were produced in the U.S. by Anthony Electric, [[Baker Motor Vehicle|Baker]], [[Columbia Automobile Company|Columbia]], [[Detroit Electric|Anderson]], [[Edison]], [[Studebaker Electric (automobile)|Studebaker]], [[Riker Electric Vehicle Company|Riker]], and others during the early 20th century. In 1917, the first gasoline-electric [[hybrid car]] was released by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago. The hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service.<ref>{{cite
|url = http://money.cnn.com/2006/04/18/Autos/alternative_fuel_history/
|date = April 18, 2006
|title = Hybrid cars are so last century
|accessdate = July 14, 2009
}}</ref>
[[Image:EdisonElectricCar1913.jpg|thumb|right|[[Thomas Edison]] and an electric car in 1913 (courtesy of the [[National Museum of American History]])]]

Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about {{Convert|32|km/h|abbr=on}}. Despite their relatively slow speed, electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early-1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise associated with gasoline cars. Changing gears on gasoline cars was the most difficult part of driving, and electric vehicles did not require gear changes. While steam-powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered from long start-up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings. The steam cars had less range before needing water than an electric car's range on a single charge. Electric cars found popularity among well-heeled customers who used them as [[city cars]], where their limited range proved to be even less of a disadvantage. The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine. Electric cars were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to this ease of operation; in fact, early electric cars were stigmatized by the perception that they were "women's cars", leading some companies to affix radiators to the front to disguise the car's propulsion system.

Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. At the turn of the century, 40 percent of American automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and America became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance.<ref name=Britannica>{{cite
|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44957/automobile/259061/Early-electric-automobiles#ref=ref918099
|title=Automobile
|accessdate=July 18, 2009
}}</ref> While basic electric cars cost under $1,000 (in 1900 dollars, roughly ${{Sigfig|{{inflation|US|1000|1900}}|2}} today), most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages designed for the upper-class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors, replete with expensive materials, and averaged $3,000 by 1900 (roughly ${{Sigfig|{{inflation|US|3000|1900}}|2}} today). Sales of electric cars peaked in 1912.

In order to overcome the limited operating range of electric vehicles, and the lack of recharging infrastructure, a exchangeable battery service was first proposed as early as 1896.<ref name=HistEV/> The concept was first put into practice by Hartford Electric Light Company through the GeVeCo battery service and initially available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle from General Vehicle Company (GVC, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company) without a battery and the electricity was purchase from Hartford Electric through an exchangeable battery. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The service was provided between 1910 to 1924 and during that periord covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917 a similar successful service was operated in [[Chicago]] for owners of [[Milburn Wagon Company|Milburn Light Electric]] cars who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries.<ref name=HistEV>{{cite book|last=Kirsch|first=David A.|title=The Electric Vehicle and the Burden of History|location=[[New Brunswick]], [[New Jersey]], and London| year = 2000| pages= 153–162| publisher =[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn= 0-8135-2809-7}}</ref>

==1920s to 1980s: Gasoline dominates==
{{Globalize|date=December 2010}}
[[File:Lincoln Highway M0377-150dpi.jpg|thumb|left|The low range of electric cars meant they could not make use of the new highways to travel between cities]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-21519-0005, Neue Fahrzeuge der Deutschen Post.jpg|thumb|[[East German]] electric vans of the [[Deutsche Post of the GDR|Deutsche Post]] in 1953.]]

After enjoying success at the beginning of the century, the electric car began to lose its position in the automobile market. This was brought about by a number of developments. By the 1920s, [[Auto trail|improved road infrastructure]] was being created between American cities; in order to make use of these roads, vehicles with greater range than that offered by electric cars were needed. The discovery of large reserves of [[petroleum]] in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable [[gasoline]], making gas-powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their slow speed (no more than 24–32&nbsp;km/h or 15–20&nbsp;mph<ref name= Britannica/>) and low range (30–40 miles or 50–65&nbsp;km<ref name=Britannica/>), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics. Gasoline cars became ever easier to operate thanks to the invention of the [[electric starter]] by [[Charles Kettering]] in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the [[muffler]], which had been invented by [[Hiram Percy Maxim]] in 1897. Finally, [[Assembly line|the initiation of mass production]] of gas-powered vehicles by [[Henry Ford]] brought the price as low $440 in 1915 (equivalent to roughly ${{Sigfig|{{inflation|US|440|1915}}|2}} today),<ref>{{cite
|last=McMahon|first=D.
|title=Some EV History / History of Electric Cars and Other Vehicles
|publisher=Econogics, Inc.
|url=http://www.econogics.com/ev/evhistry.htm
|date=3 March 2009
|accessdate=2009-04-24
}}</ref> and $360 by 1916 (roughly ${{Sigfig|{{inflation|US|360|1916}}|2}} today). By contrast, the price of similar electric vehicles continued to rise; in 1912, an electric roadster sold for $1,750 (roughly ${{Sigfig|{{inflation|US|1750|1912}}|2}} in today), while a gasoline car sold for less than half of that, $650 (roughly ${{Sigfig|{{inflation|US|650|1912}}|2}} today).<ref name=aboutcom/>

[[File:Kilowatt.jpg|thumb|left|The Henney Kilowatt, a 1961 production electric car]]
Studebaker electric cars were sold until the sales peak reached in 1912; Ryker, Morrison, Anthony Electric, and the Electric Carriage and Wagon Company of Philadelphia, all continued to sell their cars until 1914. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not pose major problems. [[Forklift truck]]s were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.com/ygl_history.asp?language=English |title=1984 |work=Yale History |accessdate=2009-07-09}}</ref> In Europe, especially the United Kingdom, [[milk float]]s were historically powered by electricity. Electric [[golf cart]]s were produced by Lektro as early as 1954.<ref>{{cite
|url=http://www.lektro.com/about_history.asp
|title=Lektro has been making electric vehicles since 1945
|chapter=Lektro history
|publisher=Lektro
|accessdate=2009-04-24
}}</ref> By the 1920s, the heydey of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the American electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. A thorough examination into the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars was discussed by author Michael Brian in his book ''Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America''.<ref>{{cite
|title=Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America
|last=Schiffer|first=Michael Brian |publisher=Smithsonian |isbn=978-1588340764
|date=March 17, 2003
}}</ref>

[[File:1973 GM electric car.png|thumb|The 1973 General Motors Urban Electric Car, charging its battery at the first symposium on low pollution power systems development.]]

Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel-starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with electric cars, such as the British milk floats, but overall, while [[Internal combustion engine|ICE]] development progressed at a brisk pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the [[Henney Kilowatt]]. The car was produced in 36-[[volt]] and 72-volt configurations; the 72-volt models had a top speed approaching {{convert|96|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.

In 1959, [[American Motors|American Motors Corporation]] (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation announced a joint research effort to consider producing an electric car that was to be powered by a "self-charging" battery.<ref name="wards2000">{{cite journal |url=http://wardsautoworld.com/ar/auto_rearview_mirror_13/index.html |title=Rearview Mirror |journal=Ward's AutoWorld |date=2000-04-01|accessdate=2011-06-18}}</ref> AMC had a reputation for innovation in economical cars while Sonotone had technology for making sintered plate [[Nickel-cadmium battery|nickel-cadmium batteries]] that could be recharged rapidly and weighed less than traditional lead-acid versions.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.roger-russell.com/sonopg/sononst.htm |last=Russell|first=Roger |title=Sonotone History: Tubes, Hi-Fi Electronics, Tape heads and Nicad Batteries|publisher=Sonotone Corporation History |accessdate=2011-06-18 }}</ref> That same year, Nu-Way Industries showed an experimental electric car with a one-piece plastic body that was to begin production in early 1960.<ref name="wards2000"/>

[[Image:Apollo15LunarRover.jpg|thumb|left|The three lunar rovers are currently parked on the moon.]]

The [[Big Three (automobile manufacturers)#United States and Canada|U.S. and Canada Big Three automakers]] had their own electric car programs during the late-1960s. In 1967, much smaller AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on [[Lithium battery|lithium]] and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk.<ref name=Wouk>{{cite journal|url=http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/articles/LXVII3/Wouk%20Feature.pdf|last= Goodstein|first=Judith|year=2004|title=Godfather of the Hybrid|journal=Engineering & Science| publisher=California Institute of Technology|volume=LXVII|issue=3|accessdate=2011-06-18}}</ref> A nickel-cadmium battery supplied power to an all-electric 1969 [[Rambler American]] station wagon.<ref name=Wouk/> Other "plug-in" experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the [[Amitron]] (1967) and the similar [[Electron (vehicle)|Electron]] (1977). More battery-electric [[concept cars]] appeared over the years, such as the [[Scottish Aviation Scamp]] (1965),<ref name="design_19660701">{{cite |last=Carr |first=Richard |date=July 1, 1966 |title=In search of the town car |journal=Design |issue=211 |pages=29–37 |publisher=Council of Industrial Design}}</ref> the [[Enfield 8000]] (1966)<ref>{{cite |title=The Electric Car |author=Michael Hereward Westbrook |publisher=IET |date=2001 |isbn=0852960131}}</ref> and two electric versions of General Motors gasoline cars, the [[Chevrolet Corvair|Electrovair]] (1966) and [[Chevrolet Chevette|Electrovette]] (1976).<ref>{{cite news| url=http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2008/autos/0809/gallery.gm_electric_cars/3.html | work=CNN | title=GM's long road back to electric cars | date=2009-04-07}}</ref> None of them entered production. 

On July 31, 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first manned vehicle to be driven on the [[Moon]]; that car was the [[Lunar rover]], which was first deployed during the ''[[Apollo 15]]'' mission. The "moon buggy" was developed by [[Boeing]] and [[Delco Electronics]], and featured a DC drive motor in each wheel, and a pair of 36-volt silver-zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries.

==1990s to present: Revival of mass interest==
{{Globalize|date=December 2010}}

After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 80s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. At the 1990 [[Los Angeles Auto Show]], [[General Motors]] President Roger Smith unveiled the GM Impact concept electric car, along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.

[[Image:1997-1999 Honda EV Plus 02.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Honda EV Plus]], one of the cars introduced as a result of the CARB ZEV mandate]]
In the early 1990s, the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB), the government of [[California]]'s "clean air agency", began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s such as electric vehicles.<ref>Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009), Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 24 and 189-191, ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7</ref><ref name=movie>''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'' Directed by Chris Paine, Distributed by Sony Pictures Classics</ref> In response, automakers developed electric models, including the [[Chrysler TEVan]], [[Ford Ranger EV]] pickup truck, [[GM EV1]] and [[Chevrolet S10 EV|S10 EV]] pickup, [[Honda EV Plus]] hatchback, Nissan lithium-battery [[Nissan Altra|Altra EV]] miniwagon and [[Toyota RAV4 EV]].

The automakers were accused of pandering to the wishes of CARB in order to continue to be allowed to sell cars in the lucrative Californian market, while failing to adequately promote their electric vehicles in order to create the impression that the consumers were not interested in the cars, all the while joining oil industry lobbyists in vigorously protesting CARB's mandate.<ref name=movie/> GM's program came under particular scrutiny; in an unusual move, consumers were not allowed to purchase EV1s, but were instead asked to sign closed-end leases, meaning that the cars had to be returned to GM at the end of the lease period, with no option to purchase, despite lessor interest in continuing to own the cars.<ref name=movie/> Chrysler, Toyota, and a group of GM dealers sued CARB in Federal court, leading to the eventual neutering of CARB's [[Zero-emissions vehicle|ZEV]] Mandate.

After public protests by EV drivers' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EVs for sale to the general public during six months, up until November 22, 2002. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market and were in some cases seen to have been [[Car crusher|destroyed]] by their manufacturers.<ref name=movie /> Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering schools and museums.
[[File:GEM eLXD electric 5314 DC 03 2009.jpg|thumb|A [[Global Electric Motorcars|GEM xLXD]] [[neighborhood electric vehicle]] used by a street food vendor at the [[National Mall]], Washington, D.C.]]
In response to a lack of large-automaker participation in the electric car industry, a number of small companies cropped up in their place, designing and marketing electric cars for the public. In 1994, the REVA Electric Car Company was established in [[Bangalore]], India, as a joint venture between the Maini Group India and AEV of California. After seven years of research and development, it launched the [[REVAi]], known as the G-Wiz i in the United Kingdom, in 2001.  California company [[Tesla Motors]], hoping to gain a foothold in the electric sports car market, released the [[Lotus Elise]]-based [[Tesla Roadster]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite|url=http://www.teslamotors.com/blog2/?p=57|title=We have begun regular production of the Tesla Roadster|publisher=[[Tesla Motors]]|date=17 March 2008 |accessdate=2008-03-20}}</ref> [[Aptera Motors]] plan to release their futuristic [[Aptera 2 Series|2e]] in 2011.

Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel-efficient or environmentally friendly cars declined among Americans, who instead favored [[sport utility vehicles]], which were affordable to operate despite their poor fuel efficiency thanks to lower gasoline prices. American automakers chose to focus their product lines around the truck-based vehicles, which enjoyed larger profit margins than the smaller cars which were preferred in places like Europe or Japan. In 1999, the [[Honda Insight]] [[hybrid car]] became the first hybrid to be sold in North America since the little-known Woods hybrid of 1917.

Hybrids, which featured a combined gasoline and electric powertrain, were seen as a balance, offering an environmentally friendly image and improved fuel economy, without being hindered by the low range of electric vehicles, albeit at an increased price over comparable gasoline cars. Sales were poor, the lack of interest attributed to the car's small size and the lack of necessity for a fuel-efficient car at the time. The [[2000s energy crisis]] brought renewed interest in hybrid and electric cars. In America, sales of the [[Toyota Prius]] (which had been on sale since 1999 in some markets) jumped, and a variety of automakers followed suit, releasing hybrid models of their own. Several began to produce new electric car prototypes, as consumers called for cars that would free them from the fluctuations of oil prices.
[[File:Roadster 2.5 charging.jpg|thumb|[[Tesla Roadster]] recharging from a conventional outlet.]]
The [[Late-2000s recession|global economic recession in the late 2000s]] led to increased calls for automakers to abandon fuel-inefficient SUVs, which were seen as a symbol of the excess that caused the recession, in favor of small cars, hybrid cars, and electric cars. The most immediate result of this was the announcement of the 2010 release of the [[Chevrolet Volt]], a [[Plug-in hybrid|plug-in hybrid car]] that represents the evolution of technologies pioneered by the EV1 of the 90s. The Volt will be able to travel for up to {{Convert|40|mi}} on battery power alone before activating an ICE to run a generator which re-charges its batteries.

As of July 2006, there are between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004.<ref>
 {{cite
  |last=Saranow|first=Jennifer
  |date=27 July 2006
  |title=The Electric Car Gets Some Muscle
  |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06208/709068-185.stm
  |newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]
  |accessdate=2009-04-24}}

</ref> [[BYD]] of China has created an electric [[Minivan|MPV]] with a {{Convert|250|mi}} range, the [[BYD E6|E6]], which it expects to sell in China beginning in late 2009, and in North America in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gunther |first=Marc |url=http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/13/technology/gunther_electric.fortune/ |title=Why Warren Buffett is investing in electric car company BYD - April 13, 2009 |publisher=Money.cnn.com |date=2009-04-13 |accessdate=2009-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Filipponio |first=Frank |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2009/01/12/detroit-2009-byd-e6-is-worlds-first-production-dual-mode-plug/ |title=Detroit 2009: BYD e6 - world's first production dual-mode plug-in hybrid crossover — Autoblog |publisher=Autoblog.com |date=2009-01-13 |accessdate=2009-09-25}}</ref> In 2009, Mitsubishi Motors and [[PSA Peugeot Citroën]] announced a joint venture to produce electric vehicle technology.<ref>[http://www.mywire.com/pubs/AFP/2008/06/17/6691220?pbl=249 MyWire | AFP: Mitsubishi, Peugeot may team up in electric cars: statement<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[list of production battery electric vehicles|A number of electric vehicles]] are currently being developed by manufacturers large and small, including the all-electric sedan from [[Coda Automotive|CODA Automotive]], a Southern California-based company.
[[File:Peugeot 106 electric.JPG|thumb|right|Electric [[Peugeot 106]]]]

At the 1990 [[Los Angeles Auto Show]], [[General Motors]] President [[Roger Smith (executive)|Roger Smith]] unveiled the [[GM Impact]] electric [[concept car]], along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.

In the early 1990s, the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB), the government of [[California]]'s "clean air agency", began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s such as electric vehicles.

In 2000, Hybrid Technologies, later renamed [[Li-ion Motors]], started manufacturing electric cars in [[Mooresville, North Carolina]]. There has been increasing controversy with [[Li-ion Motors]] though due to the ongoing 'Lemon issues' regarding their product.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2010/01/02/tech-entrepreneur-finds-a-lemon-in-his-quest-for-an-ev/|title=Tech Entrepreneur Finds a Lemon in his quest for an EV|date=2010-01-02}}</ref> and their attempt to cover it up.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2010/05/04/owner-of-converted-pt-cruiser-claims-li-ion-motors-forged-apolog/|title=Owner of Converted PT Cruiser Claims Li-Ion Motors Forged Apology|date=2010-05-04}}</ref>  [[California]] electric car maker [[Tesla Motors]] began development in 2004 on the [[Tesla Roadster]], which was first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster remained the only highway-capable EV in serial production and available for sale until 2010. Senior leaders at several large [[automaker]]s, including [[Nissan]] and [[General Motors]], have stated that the Roadster was a [[catalyst]] which demonstrated that there is pent-up consumer demand for more efficient vehicles. GM Vice Chairman [[Bob Lutz (businessman)|Bob Lutz]] said in 2007 that the Tesla Roadster inspired him to push GM to develop the [[Chevrolet Volt]], a plug-in hybrid sedan prototype that aims to reverse years of dwindling market share and massive financial losses for America's largest automaker.<ref>{{cite web|author=by Keith NaughtonDecember 22, 2007 |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/81580 |title=Bob Lutz: The Man Who Revived the Electric Car |publisher=Newsweek |date=2007-12-22 |accessdate=2010-07-16}}</ref> In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, Lutz was quoted as saying, "All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us -- and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam."<ref>{{cite web|last=Friend |first=Tad |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/08/24/090824fa_fact_friend |title=Elon Musk and electric cars |publisher=The New Yorker |date=2009-01-07 |accessdate=2010-07-16}}</ref>

The [[Nissan LEAF]] introduced in Japan and the United States in 2010 is the first all electric, zero emission five door family hatchback to be produced for the mass market from a major manufacturer.<ref name=Launch3>{{cite web|url=http://www.insideline.com/nissan/leaf/2011/first-production-nissan-leaf-electric-vehicle-delivered-to-customer.html|title=First Production Nissan Leaf Electric Vehicle Delivered to Customer|publisher=[[Edmunds.com]]|author=Scott Doggett|date=2010-12-11|accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref><ref name=LaunchJap>{{cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=131771329|title=Nissan Rolls Out Leaf Electric Car In Japan|agency=Associated Press|date=2010-12-03|accessdate=2010-12-03}}</ref> Lithium-ion battery technology, smooth body shell and advanced regenerative braking give the LEAF performance comparable to an ICE, a range of around 160&nbsp;km and the capability to reach 80% recharge levels in under 30&nbsp;minutes.<ref name='leaf_specs'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nissan-zeroemission.com/EN/LEAF/specs.html|publisher=[[Nissan]]| title=Nissan LEAF Specs|accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref> In June 2009 [[BMW]] began field testing in the U.S. of its all-electric [[Mini E]],<ref name="worldcarfans">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcarfans.com/9080925.010/all-electric-mini-cooper-spotted-for-first-time|title=Worldcarfans site}}</ref> through the leasing of 500 cars to private users in Los Angeles and the [[New York]]/[[New Jersey]] area.<ref name=GCC0809>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/08/bmw-ucdavis-20090814.html|title=BMW and UC Davis Partner on MINI E Study|date=2009-08-14|accessdate=2009-12-25|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]}}</ref><ref name=WP122409>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/23/AR2009122303463.html?sub=AR|title=Recharging and other concerns keep electric cars far from mainstream|author=Peter Whoriskey|work=[[Washington Post]]|date=2009-12-24|accessdate=2009-12-25}}</ref> A similar field test was launched in the [[U.K.]] in December 2009 with a fleet of more than forty Mini E cars.<ref name=GCC1209>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/12/minie-20091214.html|title=BMW Delivers 40 Electric MINI E Cars for UK Trial|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]|date=2009-12-14|accessdate=2009-12-25}}</ref> General Electric plans to buy 25,000 electric vehicles and convert more than half its fleet to electricity by 2015.<ref name="GE">{{cite web|author=<!--start post navigation--> Previous post Next post |url=http://www.wired.com/autopia/2010/11/general-electrics-buying-25000-electric-cars/ |title=General Electric's Buying 25,000 Electric Cars &#124; Autopia |publisher=Wired.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref>
{{-}}

==Select historical production vehicles==
Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):<ref>[http://avt.inel.gov/fsev.shtml Full Size Electric Vehicles] http://electricandhybridcars.com/index.php/pages/evmanufactures.html</ref>

{|class="sortable" border=1
!Name
!Production years
!Number produced
!Top Speed
!Cost
!Range
!mpg US<br>L/100&nbsp;km<br>(City)
!mpg US<br>L/100&nbsp;km<br>(Hwy)
|-

![[Baker Motor Vehicle|Baker Electric]]<ref>The first electric car; it was reputedly easy to drive</ref>
|1899–1915
|?
|14&nbsp;mph<br> 23&nbsp;km/h
|US$2300 or [[€]]1,700
|50&nbsp;mi<br> 80&nbsp;km
|
|
|-

![[Detroit Electric]]<ref>Sold mainly to women and physicians.</ref>
|1907–1939
|<5000
|20&nbsp;mph<br> 32&nbsp;km/h
|>US$3,000 or €2,250 depending on options
|80&nbsp;mi (130&nbsp;km)
|
|
|-

![[Henney Kilowatt]]<ref>The first modern ([[transistor]]-based) electric car and outfitted with modern hydraulic brakes.</ref>
|1958–1960
|<100
|60&nbsp;mph<br> 97&nbsp;km/h
|?
|?
|
|
|-

![[Škoda Favorit]] ELTRA 151L & 151 Pick-Up<ref>Czech-built (first electric car prog. for eastern block mfr.), exported to Europe and N. America. Lead acid batt. 15&nbsp;kW·h pack nominal; 84&nbsp;V system with regen.</ref>
|1992&ndash;1994
|<1100, perhaps 20 surviving
|50&nbsp;mph<br> 80&nbsp;km/h (limiter)
|< US $20,000, without subsidy
|50&nbsp;mi<br> 80&nbsp;km
|
|
|-

![[General Motors EV1]]<ref>For lease only, all recovered from customers by General Motors and most destroyed</ref>
|1996–2003
|1117
|80&nbsp;mph<br> 129&nbsp;km/h
|~ US$40,000 or €30,000, without [[subsidy|subsidies]]
|160&nbsp;mi<br> 257&nbsp;km
|
|
|-

![[Chevrolet S10 EV]]<ref>Fleet vehicle only. General Motors collected and destroyed most</ref>
|1997–1998
|492
|73&nbsp;mph<br> 118&nbsp;km/h
|~ US$40,000 or €30,000, without [[subsidy|subsidies]]
|90&nbsp;mi<br> 144&nbsp;km
|
|
|-

![[Honda EV Plus]]<ref>First BEV from a major automaker without [[lead-acid battery|lead-acid batteries]]. 24 twelve volt [[Nickel metal hydride battery|NiMH batteries]]</ref>
|1997–1999
|~300
|80+ mph<br> 130+ km/h
|US$455 or €340/month for 36 month [[lease]]; or $53,000 or €40,000 without subsidies
|80–110&nbsp;mi<br> 130–180&nbsp;km
|
|
|-

![[Toyota RAV4 EV]]<ref>Some leased and sold on US east and west coasts, supported. Toyota agreed to stop crushing.</ref>
|1997–2002
|1249
|78&nbsp;mph<br> 125&nbsp;km/h
|US$40,000 or €30,000 without subsidies
|87&nbsp;mi<br> 140&nbsp;km
|125<br>1.88
|100<br>2.35
|-

![[Ford Ranger EV]]<ref>Some sold, most leased; almost all recovered and most destroyed. Ford allowed reconditioning and sale of a limited quantity to former leaseholders by lottery.</ref>
|1998–2002
|1500, perhaps 200 surviving
|
|~ US$50,000 or €37,600; subsidized down to $20,000 or €15,000
|74&nbsp;mi<br> 119&nbsp;km
|
|
|-
|-
![[Think Nordic|TH!NK City]]<ref>Two seat, [http://www.thinkev.com/ 85&nbsp;km (52&nbsp;mi) range], [[Nickel-cadmium battery|NiCd batteries]]. Next generation vehicle production planned for fall 2007.</ref>
|1999–2002
|1005
|56&nbsp;mph<br> 90&nbsp;km/h
|
|53&nbsp;mi<br> 85&nbsp;km
|106<br>1.59
|83<br>2.83
|-
![[REVA]]<ref>Indian-built [[city car]] (sold in England as the "G-Wiz").</ref>
|2001–
|2500<ref>http://www.automotiveworld.com/AEM/content.asp?contentid=69132</ref>
|45&nbsp;mph<br> 72&nbsp;km/h
|[http://www.goingreen.co.uk/?PageID=DesignYourOwnGW £8,000], US$15,000 or €11,900
|50&nbsp;mi<br> 80&nbsp;km
|
|
|-
![[ZAP Xebra]]<ref>Chinese built [[Sedan (automobile)|sedan]] and truck</ref>
|2006–2009
|700+
|40&nbsp;mph<br> 65&nbsp;km/h<ref>[http://www.zapworld.com/electric-vehicles/electric-cars/xebra-sedan Xebra Electric Sedan Reservation $100]</ref>
|$10,000 or €7,500
|25&nbsp;mi<br> 40&nbsp;km
|
|
|-
![[Tesla Roadster]]<ref>650 scheduled for delivery in 2008, first one delivered February 1, 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.megawattmotorworks.com/display.asp?dismode=article&artid=293 Tesla Roadster ‘Signature One Hundred’ Series Sells Out]</ref><ref>[http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9595_22-6167658.html Tesla to open five dealer outlets]</ref>
|2008–
| 1500+
|130&nbsp;mph<br> 210&nbsp;km/h [http://www.teslamotors.com/performance/specs.php]
|US$109,000 or €99,000 base price [http://www.teslamotors.com/performance/specs.php]
|220&nbsp;mi<br> 350&nbsp;km
|less than 2 cents/mile off peak recharge
|
|}

==See also==
* [[History of the automobile]]
* [[History of plug-in hybrids]]
* [[History of electric motorcycles and scooters]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.newton.mec.edu/brown/te/ALTERNATIVE_FUEL/TIMELINE/timeline.html Alternative Fuel Vehicles Timeline]
* [http://www.econogics.com/ev/evhistry.htm An Extensive Electric Vehicle History]
* [http://www.hybrid-vehicle.org/hybrid-vehicle-history.html Hybrid-Vehicle.org: Early Electric Cars]
* [http://sloan.stanford.edu/EVonline/schallen.htm Analysis by Richard H. Schallenberg for the IEEE Transactions on Education]
* [http://sloan.stanford.edu/EVonline/kirsch.htm 1997 Dissertation by David A. Kirsch, Stanford University]
* [http://sloan.stanford.edu/EVonline/rae.htm "1955 Business Analysis of Early Electric Vehicles", John B. Rae, Associate Professor of History, MIT]
* [http://www.didik.com/ev%5Fhist.htm History And Directory Of Electric Cars From 1834 to 1987]
* [http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm Short Electric, And Other Vehicle History]
* [http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html Mikes Railway History, 1935: Electric Traction]
* [http://www.hybridcars.com/history.html some Electric information as well]
* [http://www.dassault.fr/filiale.php?docid=82 SVE Website]
* [http://www.ElectricCarSociety.com/ Electric Car Society]
* [http://www.evworld.com/index.cfm  EV World -US Internet Journal about EVs]

{{electric vehicles}}
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{{wikipedia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Electric Vehicle}}
[[Category:Electric vehicles|*]]
[[Category:Historic electric vehicles|*]]